Opportunities of generative artificial intelligence for developing learners' critical thinking
DOI: 10.23951/2307-6127-2026-4-181-194
In the context of the digital transformation of general education, fostering critical thinking in learners has become a key meta-subject task as reflected in the Federal State Educational Standards. The integration of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI) into the educational process creates both new opportunities for developing students’ cognitive abilities and significant risks of reducing their cognitive autonomy and criticality. The aim of this article is to provide a theoretical justification and systematisation of ways to use GAI for the purposeful development of students’ critical thinking. The methodological framework is based on system-activity, competence-based, and cognitive-constructivist approaches. An analysis of Russian and international scientific literature (over 45 sources), employing methods of systematisation, typologisation, comparative analysis, and pedagogical modelling, revealed that critical thinking is not an isolated cognitive phenomenon but is closely interconnected with divergent, engineering, systems, creative, reflective, analytical, algorithmic thinking, and design thinking. Two main groups of GAI application methods were identified and classified: instrumental-technological (dialogue simulators, Socratic chatbots, argumentation visualisation platforms, intelligent tutoring systems, prompt engineering training tools) and pedagogical strategies (problem-based dialogue with AI, metacognitive scaffolding, AI literacy development, AI-based flipped classroom, project-based learning with algorithmisation elements). The discussion substantiates that the sign of GAI’s impact on critical thinking is determined not so much by the technology itself but by the pedagogical context of its use, with AI acting as a “cognitive mediator” that prompts students to verify, challenge, and refine their own conclusions. Based on the analysis, a structural-functional model for fostering critical thinking through GAI is proposed, comprising target, content, instrumental, procedural, evaluation, and result blocks. The practical significance of the model lies in its use as an operationalised tool for designing educational processes aimed at developing meta-subject outcomes. Further research perspectives include the development of diagnostic instruments to assess the impact of different configurations of interaction with GAI on the dynamics of critical thinking, as well as longitudinal studies of the delayed effects of such interaction.
Keywords: generative artificial intelligence, critical thinking, school education, divergent thinking, engineering thinking, AI in education, educational platforms, chatbot, digital didactics
References:
1. Sánchez Muñoz J.A., Flores-Eraña G., Silva-Campos J.M., et al. GenAI as a cognitive mediator: a critical-constructivist inquiry into computational thinking in pre-university education. Frontiers in Education, 2025, vol. 10. Art. 1597249. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1597249
2. Tang K-S., Cooper G., Rappa N., et al. Critical questioning with generative AI: Developing AI literacy in secondary education. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 2026, vol. 59. Art. 102043. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2025.102043
3. Guo Y., Huang L., Zhang C., et al. ChatGPT in education: A systematic review of its impact on critical thinking skills and dispositions. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 2026, vol. 60. Art. 102106. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2025.102106
4. Balart T., Díaz B., Shryock K. A Systematic Literature Review on the Pedagogical Implications and Impact of GenAI on Students’ Critical Thinking. Algorithms, 2026, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 179. doi: 10.3390/a19030179
5. Samoilov A.V. Development of Secondary School Students Critical Thinking as a Strategic Priority of Modern Education: Goals, Objectives and Outcomes. Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences, 2014, vol. 7, no. 12, pp. 2021–2033. URL: https://elib.sfu-kras.ru/bitstream/handle/2311/16566/05_Samoilov.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed 29 May 2026).
6. Ivlev V. Yu., Pozdnyakov M. V., Inozemtsev V. A., et al. Critical Thinking in the Structure of Educational Programs in Russian Universities. ICECIDT 2021 Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Education: Current Issues and Digital Technologies, Amsterdam: Atlantis Press, 2021. Pp. 121–128. doi: 10.2991/assehr.k.210527.008. URL: https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210527.008 (accessed 29 May 2026).
7. Šuligoj V., Žavbi R., Avsec S. Interdisciplinary Critical and Design Thinking. International Journal of Engineering Education, 2020, vol. 36, no. 1(A), pp. 84–95. URL: https://www.ijee.ie/1atestissues/Vol36-1A/07_ijee3858.pdf (accessed 29 May 2026).
8. Sandhu K., Sarkar P., Subburaj K. Entrepreneurial thinking in engineering design education: a comparative study of cognitive paradigms with insights from industry and academia. Entrepreneurship Education, 2026, vol. 9, pp. 259–302. doi: 10.1007/s41959-025-00158-5
9. Karthikeyan K., Vasudevan A., Sowmya K. R. et al. AI-Enabled Creativity: Effects on Divergent and Convergent Thinking among Higher Education Students. International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy (IJEP), 2025, vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 52–68. doi: 10.3991/ijep.v15i7.59051
10. Vega Vermehren J. A. How STEM students think: an AI-powered systematic review of thinking skills in STEM higher education. Discover Education, 2025, vol. 4, no. 461. doi: 10.1007/s44217-025-00936-2
11. Szőzda A.R., Mahaffy P.G., Flynn A.B. The potential for systems thinking as an approach for evaluating false science information. RSC Sustainability, 2026. doi:10.1039/D5SU00901D. URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/D5SU00901D (accessed 29 May 2026).
12. Reynolds M. Critical thinking and systems thinking: towards a critical literacy for systems thinking in practice. Critical Thinking. Eds. C.P. Horvath, J.M. Forte. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2011. Chapter 2. Pp. 37–68.
13. Soltani B., Ong K. Enhancing critical thinking through systems thinking integration: a mixed-methods study of student learning outcomes. EDULEARN25 Proceedings: 17th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies (Spain, Palma, 30 June-2 July, 2025). 2025. Pp. 2535–2538. doi: 10.21125/edulearn.2025.0702
14. Li C., Cui H., Hagedorn L.S. The cognitive impact of ChatGPT in higher education: A systematic review of critical and creative thinking outcomes. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2026, vol. 10. Art. 100571. doi: 10.1016/j.caeai.2026.100571
15. Valkonen P. Combining Critical and Creative Thinking with the Development of Educational Technology based on Contextual Generative AI. LAB Open, 2026. URL: https://www.labopen.fi/en/lab-pro/combining-critical-and-creative-thinking-with-the-development-of-educational-technology-based-on-contextual-generative-ai/ (accessed 29 May 2026).
16. Benvenuti M., Cangelosi A., Weinberger A. et al. Artificial intelligence and human behavioral development: A perspective on new skills and competences acquisition for the educational context. Computers in Human Behavior, 2023, vol. 148. Art. 107903. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2023.107903
17. Zijing Hu. Promoting Critical Thinking through Socratic Questions in Health Sciences Work-Integrated Learning. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 2023, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 137–151. doi: 10.26803/ijlter.22.6.8
18. Ugwuanyi I.P., Wong K.O.Y., Ahlstrom D. Enhancing Critical Thinking and Creativity through Ethical Awareness and Use of Generative Artificial Intelligence in Education. ICOIE 2025 Conference Programme. Hong Kong Metropolitan University, 2025. Pp. 42. URL: https://www.hkmu.edu.hk/WEB/icoie2025_programme_book.pdf (accessed 29 May 2026).
19. Aslan S., Aybek B. Development of Critical-Thinking Skills Rubric within the Scope of Multicultural Education. Educational Process: International Journal, 2024, vol. 13, no 3, pp. 139–158. doi: 10.22521/edupij.2024.133.8. URL: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1447522.pdf (accessed 29 May 2026).
20. Creely E. Generative AI to foster computational thinking in initial teacher education: A thematic literature review and model. Behavioral Sciences, 2026, vol. 16, no 4. Art. 575. doi: 10.3390/bs16040575
21. Hsu H.P. From Programming to Prompting: Developing Computational Thinking through Large Language Model-Based Generative Artificial Intelligence. TechTrends, 2025, vol. 69, pp. 485–506. doi: 10.1007/s11528-025-01052-6
22. Gong X., Xu W., Qiao A. Exploring undergraduates’ computational thinking and human-computer interaction patterns in generative progressive prompt-assisted programming learning. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 2025, vol. 22, no. 51. doi: 10.1186/s41239-025-00552-y
23. Zemke H. Stahmann P., Janiesch C. Leveraging Generative Artificial Intelligence for Design Thinking in Creative Processes: A Literature Review. Proceedings of the 58th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2025. P. 138–148. doi: 10.24251/HICSS.2025.018
24. Li S., Ren X., Schweizer K. J., et al. Executive functions as predictors of critical thinking: Behavioral and neural evidence. Learning and Instruction, 2021, vol. 71. Art. 101376. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101376
25. Zhou T., Liu Y., Kumar M., et al. Generative AI-enabled chatbots for user-centred design: a state-of-the-art review. Journal of Engineering Design, 2026, pp. 1–28. doi: 10.1080/09544828.2026.2633488
26. Liu Z, Li S, Shang S. et al. How Do Critical Thinking Ability and Critical Thinking Disposition Relate to the Mental Health of University Students? Frontiers in Psychology, 2021, vol. 12. Art. 704229. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.704229
27. Burmistrov A.A. Prompt-inzhiniring kak instrument razvitiya kriticheskogo myshleniya i sistemnogo analiza u studentov [Industrial engineering as a tool for developing critical thinking and systems analysis among students]. Universum: tekhnicheskiye nauki: elektronnyy nauchnyy zhurnal – Universum: Technical Sciencesl, 2026, no. 3 (144) (in Russian). doi: 10.32743/UniTech.2026.144.3.22168. URL: https://7universum.com/ru/tech/archive/item/22168 (accessed 30 May 2026).
28. Serezhnikova Yu.S. Sintez traditsionnogo i tsifrovogo: usileniye sistemno-deyatel’nostnogo podkhoda s pomoshch’yu generativnogo II [Synthesis of traditional and digital: strengthening the system-activity approach using generative AI]. Elektronnyy zhurnal «Peterburgskoye obrazovaniye. XXI vek», 2025 (in Russian). URL: http://spb21.ru/publications/tmo/5045 (accessed 30 May 2026).
29. Ponomarеv A.V., Tkachenko Yu.O. Metakognitivnyy podkhod k razvitiyu kriticheskogo myshleniya studentov [A metacognitive approach to developing students' critical thinking]. Psikhologicheskaya nauka i obrazovaniye – Psychological science and education, 2023, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 45–59 (in Russian).
30. Dwyer C. P., Hogan M. J., Stewart I. The effects of argument mapping-infused critical thinking instruction on reflective judgment performance. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 2015, vol. 16, pp. 11–26. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2014.12.002
31. Gutorova G.D. Sushchnost’ i soderzhaniye metapredmetnogo podkhoda v pedagogicheskoy nauke i federal’nom gosudarstvennom obrazovatel’nom standarte [The essence and content of the meta-subject approach in pedagogical science and the Federal State educational standard]. Nauchno-pedagogicheskoye obozreniye – Pedagogical Review, 2020, vol. 5 (33), pp. 41–50 (in Russian). doi:10.23951/2307-6127-2020-5-41-50
32. Nikol’skiy V.S. Kommunikativnyy iskusstvennyy intellekt: kontseptualizatsiya novoy real’nosti v obrazovanii [Communicative Artificial Intelligence: Conceptualizing a new reality in education]. Vyssheye obrazovaniye v Rossii – Higher education in Russia, 2025, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 152–168 (in Russian). doi: 10.31992/0869-3617-2025-34-6-152-168. URL: https://vovr.elpub.ru/jour/article/view/5650 (accessed 30 May 2026).
33. Blau I., Shamir-Inbal T., Arazi Z. The Impact of Interactivity on Knowledge Construction in the Age of Generative AI. Proceedings of the 20th Chais Conference for the Study of Innovation and Learning Technologies: The Learner in the Digital Age. Eds. D. Olnik-Shemesh, et al. Ra'anana: The Open University of Israel, 2025. Pp. 235-236. URL: https://docs.yandex.ru/docs/view?tm=1782720790&tld=ru&lang=en&name=Chais2025_book.pdf&text=Proceedings%20of%20the%2020th%20Chais%20Conference%20for%20the%20Study%20of%20Innovation%20and%20Learning%20Technologies%3A%20The%20Learner%20in%20the%20Digital%20Age&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.openu.ac.il%2FLists%2FMediaServer_Documents%2Finnovation%2Fchais%2F2025%2FChais2025_book.pdf&lr=67&mime=pdf&l10n=ru&sign=b70ec06325e7244518aaa5615e6362dd&keyno=0&nosw=1&serpParams=tm%3D1782720790%26tld%3Dru%26lang%3Den%26name%3DChais2025_book.pdf%26text%3DProceedings%2Bof%2Bthe%2B20th%2BChais%2BConference%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BStudy%2Bof%2BInnovation%2Band%2BLearning%2BTechnologies%253A%2BThe%2BLearner%2Bin%2Bthe%2BDigital%2BAge%26url%3Dhttps%253A%2F%2Fwww.openu.ac.il%2FLists%2FMediaServer_Documents%2Finnovation%2Fchais%2F2025%2FChais2025_book.pdf%26lr%3D67%26mime%3Dpdf%26l10n%3Dru%26sign%3Db70ec06325e7244518aaa5615e6362dd%26keyno%3D0%26nosw%3D1 (accessed 30 May 2026).
34. Fakour H., Imani M. Socratic wisdom in the age of AI: a comparative study of ChatGPT and human tutors in enhancing critical thinking skills. Frontiers in Education, 2025, vol. 10. Art. 1528603. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1528603. URL: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/education/articles/10.3389/feduc.2025.1528603 (accessed 30 May 2026).
35. Thea: AI-powered scenario-based questioning for critical thinking developmen. Hong Kong Metropolitan University Research Repository, 2026. URL: https://www.hkmu.edu.hk/st/computing/fyp/ai-powered-question-generator/ (accessed 01 June 2026).
36. Ideas and resources for using Kialo Edu with students. Blog & Resources, 2026. URL: https://blog.kialo-edu.com/ (accessed 01 June 2026).
37. Jamal H. Teaching critical thinking in an age of noise. Kialo Edu Blog. 2025. URL: https://blog.kialo-edu.com/debate-argumentation/teaching-critical-thinking-in-an-age-of-noise/ (accessed 01 June 2026).
38. Jain N., Wang D. Why speaking to AI may be better for brainstorming. Columbia Business School, 2026. URL: https://business.columbia.edu/insights/why-speaking-ai-may-be-better-brainstorming-CAiSEY (accessed 01 June 2026).
39. Scheuer O., Loll F., Pinkwart N. et al. Computer-supported argumentation: A review of the state of the art. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 2010, vol. 5, pp. 43–102. DOI 10.1007/s11412-009-9080-x.
40. Lanzetta M., Abbruzzese G., Maravelaki S., et al. INKEY | E-Learning Platform (Version 1). Zenodo. 2024. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.12744087. URL: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12744087 (accessed 01 June 2026).
41. Symbai. AI Debate App & Critical Thinking Platform [Electronic resource]. URL: https://symbai.ai/ (accessed 01 June 2026).
42. Akhmetova B.N. Formirovaniye kriticheskogo myshleniya studentov v usloviyakh dostupnosti II-instrumentov [Formation of students' critical thinking in the context of the availability of AI tools]. Molodoy uchenyy, 2026, no. 16.1 (619.1), pp. 11–12 (in Russian).
43. Elgamal H. Towards a Flipped Learning Ecosystem: A Generative Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Framework. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 2025, vol. 27(2), no. 8, pp. 1–14. doi: 10.65043/eurodl.151
44. Rhomari D., Edderaouy B., Ghziyel A. The Applicability of AI-Empowered Flipped Classrooms in the Moroccan School System. Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues, 2026. vol. 6, pp. 57–80. URL: https://revues.imist.ma/index.php/SSDL/article/view/63050 (accessed 01 June 2026).
45. Terbusheva E.A. Razvitie kriticheskogo otnosheniya uchashchihsya osnovnoy i sredney shkoly k otvetam generativnogo iskusstvennogo intellekta [Development of critical attitude of primary and secondary school students towards generative artificial intelligence responses]. Pedagogika. Voprosy teorii i praktiki – Pedagogy. Theory and Practice, 2026, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 801–809 (in Russian). doi: 10.30853/ped20260096.
46. Kir’yakova A.V., Ivanova V.M., Kaynyshev M.S. Iskusstvennyy intellekt kak refleksivnyy mediator v sisteme obrazovatel’noy podderzhki sub’’ektnosti i tsennostnoy orientatsii lichnosti [Artificial intelligence as a reflexive mediator in the system of educational support for subjectivity and value orientation of personality]. Sovremennye problemy nauki i obrazovaniya – Modern Problems of Science and Education, 2024, no. 6 (in Russian). URL: https://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=34483 (accessed 1 June 2026).
47. Lazorak O.V. Vliyaniye iskusstvennogo intellekta na razvitiye kriticheskogo myshleniya u studentov universiteta [The influence of artificial intelligence on the development of critical thinking in university students]. Sovremennye naukoemkiye tekhnologii – Modern High Technologies, 2025, no. 2, pp. 182–188 (in Russian). doi: 10.17513/snt.40688. URL: https://top-technologies.ru/ru/article/view?id=40688 (accessed 09 June 2026)
48. Kazakova E.I., Kuz’minov Ya.I. My dolzhny vospitat’ kul’turu kriticheskogo otnosheniya k otvetam iskusstvennogo intellekta [We must cultivate a culture of critical attitude towards artificial intelligence responses]. Voprosy obrazovaniya – Educational Studies Moscow, 2025, no. 1, pp. 8–25 (in Russian). doi: 10.17323/vo-2025-25882
( 473.25 kB ) 
( 470.83 kB )
Issue: 4, 2026
Series of issue: Issue 4
Rubric: REVIEWS
Pages: 181 — 194
Downloads: 157